Abstract

We designed and constructed a single-fiber-optic confocal microscope (SFCM) with a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) scanner and a miniature objective lens. Axial and lateral resolution values for the system were experimentally measured to be 9.55 µm and 0.83 µm respectively, in good agreement with theoretical predictions. Reflectance images were acquired at a rate of 8 frames per second, over a 140 µm×70 µm field-of-view. In anticipation of future applications in oral cancer detection, we imaged ex vivo and in vivo human oral tissue with the SFCM, demonstrating the ability of the system to resolve cellular detail.

©2007 Optical Society of America

Full Article  |  PDF Article
OSA Recommended Articles
Single fiber confocal microscope with a two-axis gimbaled MEMS scanner for cellular imaging

Kristen Carlson Maitland, Hyun Joon Shin, Hyejun Ra, Daesung Lee, Olav Solgaard, and Rebecca Richards-Kortum
Opt. Express 14(19) 8604-8612 (2006)

In vivo fiber-optic confocal reflectance microscope with an injection-molded plastic miniature objective lens

Kristen Carlson, Matthew Chidley, Kung-Bin Sung, Michael Descour, Ann Gillenwater, Michele Follen, and Rebecca Richards-Kortum
Appl. Opt. 44(10) 1792-1797 (2005)

Miniature in vivo MEMS-based line-scanned dual-axis confocal microscope for point-of-care pathology

C. Yin, A.K. Glaser, S. Y. Leigh, Y. Chen, L. Wei, P. C. S. Pillai, M. C. Rosenberg, S. Abeytunge, G. Peterson, C. Glazowski, N. Sanai, M. J. Mandella, M. Rajadhyaksha, and J. T. C. Liu
Biomed. Opt. Express 7(2) 251-263 (2016)

More Recommended Articles

References

  • View by:
  • Article Order
  • |
  • Year
  • |
  • Author
  • |
  • Publication
  1. J. B. Pawley, ed. Handbook of confocal microsopy, 2nd edn. (Plenum, New York, 1995).
  2. M. Rajadhyaksha, R. R. Anderson, and R. H. Webb, “Video-rate confocal scanning laser microscope for imaging human tissues in vivo,” Appl. Opt. 38, 2105–2115 (1999).
    [Crossref]
  3. R. H. Webb, G. W. Hughes, and F. C. Delori, “Confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope,” Appl. Opt. 26, 1492–1499 (1987).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  4. K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
    [Crossref]
  5. K. D. Carlson, “Fiber optic confocal microscope: in vivo precancer detection”, PhD thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, 2006.
  6. K. B. Sung, R. Richards-Kortum, M. Follen, A. Malpica, C. Liang, and M. Descour, “Fiber optic confocal reflectance microscopy: a new real-time technique to view nuclear morphology in cervical squamous epithelium in vivo,” Opt. Express 11, 3171–3181 (2003).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  7. M. R. Harris, “Scanning microscope with a miniature head,” U.K. patent GB 2 340 332 B (2001).
  8. A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  9. E. J. Seibel and Q. Y. J. Smithwick, “Unique features of optical scanning, single fiber endoscopy,” Lasers Surg. Med. 30, 177–183 (2002).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  10. L. Giniunas, R. Juskaitis, and S. V. Shatalin, “Scanning fiber-optic microscope,” Electron. Lett.  27, 724–726 (1991).
    [Crossref]
  11. C. Boudoux, S. H. Yun, W. Y. Oh, W. M. White, N. V. Iftimia, M. Shishkov, B. E. Bouma, and G. J. Tearney, “Rapid wavelength-swept spectrally encoded confocal microscopy,” Opt. Express 13, 8214–8221 (2005).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  12. D. Yelin, C. Boudoux, B. E. Bouma, and G. J. Tearney, “Large area confocal microscopy,” Opt. Lett.  32, 1102–1104 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  13. A. F. Gmitro and D. Aziz, “Confocal microscopy through a fiber-optic imaging bundle,” Opt. Lett. 18, 565–567 (1993).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  14. E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  15. P. M. Lane, A. L. P. Dlugan, R. Richards-Kortum, and C. E. MacAulay, “Fiber-optic confocal microscopy using a spatial light modulator,” Opt. Lett. 25, 1780–1782 (2000).
    [Crossref]
  16. Y. S. Sabharwal, A. R. Rouse, L. Donaldson, M. F. Hopkins, and A. F. Gmitro “Slit-scanning confocal microendoscope for high-resolution in vivo imaging,” Appl. Opt. 38, 7133–7144 (1999).
    [Crossref]
  17. A. R. Rouse, A. Kano, J. A. Udovich, S. M. Kroto, and A. F. Gmitro, “Design and demonstration of a miniature catheter for a confocal microendoscope,” Appl. Opt. 43, 5763–5771 (2004).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  18. H. Miyajilma, K. Murakami, and M. Katashiro, “MEMS Optical Scanners for Microscopes,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. 10, 514–527 (2004).
    [Crossref]
  19. D. L. Dickensheets and G. S. Kino, “Micromachined scanning confocal optical microscope,” Opt. Lett. 21, 764–766 (1996).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  20. S. Kwon and L. P. Lee, “Micromachined transmissive scanning confocal microscope,” Opt. Lett. 29, 706–708 (2004).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  21. K. C. Maitland, H. J. Shin, H. Ra, D. Lee, O. Solgaard, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Single fiber confocal microscope with a two-axis gimbaled MEMS scanner for cellular imaging,” Opt. Express 14, 8604–8612 (2006).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  22. J. T. C. Liu, M. J. Mandella, H. Ra, L. K. Wong, O. Solgaard, G. S. Kino, W. Piyawattanametha, C. H. Contag, and T. D. Wang, “Miniature near-infrared dual-axes confocal microscope utilizing a two-dimensional microelectromechanical systems scanner,” Opt. Lett. 32, 256–258 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  23. B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, W. Piyawattanametha, J. C. Jung, E. L. M. Cheung, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging,” Nat. Methods 2, 941–950 (2005).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  24. C. Liang, K. B. Sung, R. Richards-Kortum, and M. Descour, “Design of a high-numerical-aperture miniature microscope objective for an endoscopic fiber confocal microscope,” Appl. Opt. 41, 4603–4610 (2002).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  25. R. T. Kester, T. S. Tkaczyk, M. R. Descour, T. Christenson, and R. Richards-Kortum, “High numerical aperture microendoscope objective for a fiber confocal reflectance microscope,” Opt. Express 15, 2409–2420 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  26. W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
    [Crossref]
  27. J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
    [Crossref]
  28. W. Piyawattanametha, R. P. J. Barretto, T. H. Ko, B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, H. Ra, D. Lee, O. Solgaard, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fast-scanning two-photon fluorescence imaging based on a microelectromechanical systems two-dimensional scanning mirror,” Opt. Lett. 31, 2018–2020 (2006).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  29. D. Lee and O. Solgaard. “Two-axis gimbaled microscanner in double SOI layers actuated by self-aligned vertical electrostatic combdrive,” in Proceedings of the Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, (2004), pp. 352–355.
  30. H. Ra, W. Piyawattanametha, Y. Taguchi, and O. Solgaard, “Dual-axes confocal fluorescence microscopy with a two-dimensional MEMS scanner,” Proc. IEEE/LEOS International Conference on Optical MEMS and their applications, 166–167 (2006).
    [Crossref]
  31. P. J. Dwyer, C. A. DiMarzio, J. M. Zavislan, W. J. Fox, and M. Rajadhyaksha, “Confocal reflectance theta line scanning microscope for imaging human skin in vivo,” Opt. Lett. 31, 942–944 (2006).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  32. T. Wilson and A. R. Carlini, “Size of the detector in confocal imaging systems,” Opt. Lett. 12, 227–229 (1987).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  33. M. Gu, C. J. R. Sheppard, and X. Gan, “Image formation in a fiber-optical confocal scanning microscope,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 8, 1755–1761 (1991).
    [Crossref]
  34. A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman & Hall, London, 1983), Chap. 15.
  35. R. H. Webb, “Confocal optical microscopy,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 59, 427–471 (1996).
    [Crossref]
  36. K. B. Sung, C. Liang, M. Descour, T. Collier, M. Follen, A. Malpica, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Near real time in vivo fibre optic confocal microscopy: sub-cellular structure resolved,” J. Microsc.  207, 137–145 (2002).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  37. W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo by confocal reflectance microscopy,” Laryngoscope 109, 1709–1717 (1999).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  38. A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
    [PubMed]
  39. R. H. Webb, “Optics for laser rasters,” Appl. Opt. 23, 3680–3683 (1984).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]

2007 (4)

2006 (5)

2005 (3)

B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, W. Piyawattanametha, J. C. Jung, E. L. M. Cheung, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging,” Nat. Methods 2, 941–950 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

C. Boudoux, S. H. Yun, W. Y. Oh, W. M. White, N. V. Iftimia, M. Shishkov, B. E. Bouma, and G. J. Tearney, “Rapid wavelength-swept spectrally encoded confocal microscopy,” Opt. Express 13, 8214–8221 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2004 (4)

S. Kwon and L. P. Lee, “Micromachined transmissive scanning confocal microscope,” Opt. Lett. 29, 706–708 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. R. Rouse, A. Kano, J. A. Udovich, S. M. Kroto, and A. F. Gmitro, “Design and demonstration of a miniature catheter for a confocal microendoscope,” Appl. Opt. 43, 5763–5771 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Miyajilma, K. Murakami, and M. Katashiro, “MEMS Optical Scanners for Microscopes,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. 10, 514–527 (2004).
[Crossref]

2003 (2)

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

K. B. Sung, R. Richards-Kortum, M. Follen, A. Malpica, C. Liang, and M. Descour, “Fiber optic confocal reflectance microscopy: a new real-time technique to view nuclear morphology in cervical squamous epithelium in vivo,” Opt. Express 11, 3171–3181 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2002 (3)

C. Liang, K. B. Sung, R. Richards-Kortum, and M. Descour, “Design of a high-numerical-aperture miniature microscope objective for an endoscopic fiber confocal microscope,” Appl. Opt. 41, 4603–4610 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. B. Sung, C. Liang, M. Descour, T. Collier, M. Follen, A. Malpica, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Near real time in vivo fibre optic confocal microscopy: sub-cellular structure resolved,” J. Microsc.  207, 137–145 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

E. J. Seibel and Q. Y. J. Smithwick, “Unique features of optical scanning, single fiber endoscopy,” Lasers Surg. Med. 30, 177–183 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2000 (1)

1999 (3)

1996 (2)

1993 (1)

1991 (3)

M. Gu, C. J. R. Sheppard, and X. Gan, “Image formation in a fiber-optical confocal scanning microscope,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 8, 1755–1761 (1991).
[Crossref]

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

L. Giniunas, R. Juskaitis, and S. V. Shatalin, “Scanning fiber-optic microscope,” Electron. Lett.  27, 724–726 (1991).
[Crossref]

1987 (2)

1984 (1)

Alizadeh-Naderi, R.

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Anderson, R. R.

M. Rajadhyaksha, R. R. Anderson, and R. H. Webb, “Video-rate confocal scanning laser microscope for imaging human tissues in vivo,” Appl. Opt. 38, 2105–2115 (1999).
[Crossref]

W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo by confocal reflectance microscopy,” Laryngoscope 109, 1709–1717 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Aziz, D.

Bancu, M. G.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Barretto, R. P. J.

Bernstein, J. J.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Boudoux, C.

Bouma, B. E.

Boyde, A.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Carlini, A. R.

Carlson, K. D.

K. D. Carlson, “Fiber optic confocal microscope: in vivo precancer detection”, PhD thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, 2006.

Cavanagh, H. D.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Chen, Z.

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

Cheung, E. L. M.

B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, W. Piyawattanametha, J. C. Jung, E. L. M. Cheung, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging,” Nat. Methods 2, 941–950 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Christenson, T.

Clark, A. L.

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Cocker, E. D.

Collier, T.

K. B. Sung, C. Liang, M. Descour, T. Collier, M. Follen, A. Malpica, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Near real time in vivo fibre optic confocal microscopy: sub-cellular structure resolved,” J. Microsc.  207, 137–145 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Collier, T. G.

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Contag, C. H.

Corcuff, P.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

de Boer, J. F.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Delaney, P.

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Delori, F. C.

Descour, M.

Descour, M. R.

Dickensheets, D. L.

DiMarzio, C. A.

Dlugan, A. L. P.

Donaldson, L.

Dwyer, P. J.

El-Naggar, A. K.

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Fabian, R. L.

W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo by confocal reflectance microscopy,” Laryngoscope 109, 1709–1717 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Flusberg, B. A.

Follen, M.

K. B. Sung, R. Richards-Kortum, M. Follen, A. Malpica, C. Liang, and M. Descour, “Fiber optic confocal reflectance microscopy: a new real-time technique to view nuclear morphology in cervical squamous epithelium in vivo,” Opt. Express 11, 3171–3181 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. B. Sung, C. Liang, M. Descour, T. Collier, M. Follen, A. Malpica, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Near real time in vivo fibre optic confocal microscopy: sub-cellular structure resolved,” J. Microsc.  207, 137–145 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Fox, W. J.

Gan, X.

Genet, M.

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Gillenwater, A. M.

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Giniunas, L.

L. Giniunas, R. Juskaitis, and S. V. Shatalin, “Scanning fiber-optic microscope,” Electron. Lett.  27, 724–726 (1991).
[Crossref]

Gmitro, A. F.

Gonzalez, S.

W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo by confocal reflectance microscopy,” Laryngoscope 109, 1709–1717 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Gu, M.

Harris, M. R.

M. R. Harris, “Scanning microscope with a miniature head,” U.K. patent GB 2 340 332 B (2001).

Hopkins, M. F.

Hughes, G. W.

Iftimia, N. V.

Jester, J. V.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Jung, J. C.

B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, W. Piyawattanametha, J. C. Jung, E. L. M. Cheung, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging,” Nat. Methods 2, 941–950 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Jung, W.

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

Juskaitis, R.

L. Giniunas, R. Juskaitis, and S. V. Shatalin, “Scanning fiber-optic microscope,” Electron. Lett.  27, 724–726 (1991).
[Crossref]

Kano, A.

Katashiro, M.

H. Miyajilma, K. Murakami, and M. Katashiro, “MEMS Optical Scanners for Microscopes,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. 10, 514–527 (2004).
[Crossref]

Kester, R. T.

Kiesslich, R.

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Kim, K. H.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Kino, G. S.

Ko, T. H.

Kroto, S. M.

Kwon, S.

Laemmel, E.

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Lane, P. M.

Le Gargasson, J-F.

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Le Goualher, G.

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Lee, D.

Lee, L. P.

Lee, T. W.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Lemp, M. A.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Leveque, J. L.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Liang, C.

Liu, J. T. C.

Love, J. D.

A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman & Hall, London, 1983), Chap. 15.

MacAulay, C. E.

Maguluri, G.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Maitland, K. C.

Malpica, A.

K. B. Sung, R. Richards-Kortum, M. Follen, A. Malpica, C. Liang, and M. Descour, “Fiber optic confocal reflectance microscopy: a new real-time technique to view nuclear morphology in cervical squamous epithelium in vivo,” Opt. Express 11, 3171–3181 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. B. Sung, C. Liang, M. Descour, T. Collier, M. Follen, A. Malpica, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Near real time in vivo fibre optic confocal microscopy: sub-cellular structure resolved,” J. Microsc.  207, 137–145 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Mandella, M. J.

Martin, L.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

McCormick, D. T.

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

McLaren, W.

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Miyajilma, H.

H. Miyajilma, K. Murakami, and M. Katashiro, “MEMS Optical Scanners for Microscopes,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. 10, 514–527 (2004).
[Crossref]

Murakami, K.

H. Miyajilma, K. Murakami, and M. Katashiro, “MEMS Optical Scanners for Microscopes,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. 10, 514–527 (2004).
[Crossref]

Neurath, M.

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

New, K. C.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Oh, W. Y.

Perchant, A.

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Petroll, W. M.

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Piyawattanametha, W.

Polglase, A. L.

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Ra, H.

Rajadhyaksha, M.

Richards Kortum, R.

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Richards-Kortum, R.

Rogomentich, F. J.

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Rouse, A. R.

Sabharwal, Y. S.

Schnitzer, M. J.

Seibel, E. J.

E. J. Seibel and Q. Y. J. Smithwick, “Unique features of optical scanning, single fiber endoscopy,” Lasers Surg. Med. 30, 177–183 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Shatalin, S. V.

L. Giniunas, R. Juskaitis, and S. V. Shatalin, “Scanning fiber-optic microscope,” Electron. Lett.  27, 724–726 (1991).
[Crossref]

Sheppard, C. J. R.

Shin, H. J.

Shishkov, M.

Skinner, S.

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Smithwick, Q. Y. J.

E. J. Seibel and Q. Y. J. Smithwick, “Unique features of optical scanning, single fiber endoscopy,” Lasers Surg. Med. 30, 177–183 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Snyder, A. W.

A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman & Hall, London, 1983), Chap. 15.

Solgaard, O.

Sung, K. B.

Taguchi, Y.

H. Ra, W. Piyawattanametha, Y. Taguchi, and O. Solgaard, “Dual-axes confocal fluorescence microscopy with a two-dimensional MEMS scanner,” Proc. IEEE/LEOS International Conference on Optical MEMS and their applications, 166–167 (2006).
[Crossref]

Tearney, G. J.

Tien, N. C.

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

Tkaczyk, T. S.

Udovich, J. A.

Vicaut, E.

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Wang, L.

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

Wang, T. D.

Webb, R. H.

White, W. M.

C. Boudoux, S. H. Yun, W. Y. Oh, W. M. White, N. V. Iftimia, M. Shishkov, B. E. Bouma, and G. J. Tearney, “Rapid wavelength-swept spectrally encoded confocal microscopy,” Opt. Express 13, 8214–8221 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo by confocal reflectance microscopy,” Laryngoscope 109, 1709–1717 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Wilson, T.

Wong, L. K.

Yelin, D.

Yun, S. H.

Zavislan, J. M.

Zhang, J.

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

Appl. Opt. (6)

Appl. Phys. Lett. (1)

W. Jung, D. T. McCormick, J. Zhang, L. Wang, N. C. Tien, and Z. Chen, “Three-dimensional endoscopic optical coherence tomography by use of a two-axis microelectromechanical scanning mirror,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 163901 (2006).
[Crossref]

Clin. Cancer Res. (1)

A. L. Clark, A. M. Gillenwater, T. G. Collier, R. Alizadeh-Naderi, A. K. El-Naggar, and R. Richards Kortum, “Confocal microscopy for real-time detection of oral cavity neoplasia,” Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 4714–4721 (2003).
[PubMed]

Electron. Lett. (1)

L. Giniunas, R. Juskaitis, and S. V. Shatalin, “Scanning fiber-optic microscope,” Electron. Lett.  27, 724–726 (1991).
[Crossref]

Gastrointest. Endosc. (1)

A. L. Polglase, W. McLaren, S. Skinner, R. Kiesslich, M. Neurath, and P. Delaney, “A fluorescence confocal endomicroscope for in vivo microscopy of the upper- and lower-GI tract,” Gastrointest. Endosc. 62, 686–695 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. (1)

H. Miyajilma, K. Murakami, and M. Katashiro, “MEMS Optical Scanners for Microscopes,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum. Electron. 10, 514–527 (2004).
[Crossref]

J. Microsc. (1)

K. B. Sung, C. Liang, M. Descour, T. Collier, M. Follen, A. Malpica, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Near real time in vivo fibre optic confocal microscopy: sub-cellular structure resolved,” J. Microsc.  207, 137–145 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. Opt. Soc. Am. A (1)

J. Vasc. Res. (1)

E. Laemmel, M. Genet, G. Le Goualher, A. Perchant, J-F. Le Gargasson, and E. Vicaut, “Fibered confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cell-viZio™) facilitates extended imaging in the field of microcirculation,” J. Vasc. Res. 41, 400–411 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Laryngoscope (1)

W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo by confocal reflectance microscopy,” Laryngoscope 109, 1709–1717 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Lasers Surg. Med. (1)

E. J. Seibel and Q. Y. J. Smithwick, “Unique features of optical scanning, single fiber endoscopy,” Lasers Surg. Med. 30, 177–183 (2002).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Nat. Methods (1)

B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, W. Piyawattanametha, J. C. Jung, E. L. M. Cheung, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fiber-optic fluorescence imaging,” Nat. Methods 2, 941–950 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Opt. Express (4)

Opt. Lett. (9)

D. Yelin, C. Boudoux, B. E. Bouma, and G. J. Tearney, “Large area confocal microscopy,” Opt. Lett.  32, 1102–1104 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. F. Gmitro and D. Aziz, “Confocal microscopy through a fiber-optic imaging bundle,” Opt. Lett. 18, 565–567 (1993).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D. L. Dickensheets and G. S. Kino, “Micromachined scanning confocal optical microscope,” Opt. Lett. 21, 764–766 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. Kwon and L. P. Lee, “Micromachined transmissive scanning confocal microscope,” Opt. Lett. 29, 706–708 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. T. C. Liu, M. J. Mandella, H. Ra, L. K. Wong, O. Solgaard, G. S. Kino, W. Piyawattanametha, C. H. Contag, and T. D. Wang, “Miniature near-infrared dual-axes confocal microscope utilizing a two-dimensional microelectromechanical systems scanner,” Opt. Lett. 32, 256–258 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. M. Lane, A. L. P. Dlugan, R. Richards-Kortum, and C. E. MacAulay, “Fiber-optic confocal microscopy using a spatial light modulator,” Opt. Lett. 25, 1780–1782 (2000).
[Crossref]

P. J. Dwyer, C. A. DiMarzio, J. M. Zavislan, W. J. Fox, and M. Rajadhyaksha, “Confocal reflectance theta line scanning microscope for imaging human skin in vivo,” Opt. Lett. 31, 942–944 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

T. Wilson and A. R. Carlini, “Size of the detector in confocal imaging systems,” Opt. Lett. 12, 227–229 (1987).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

W. Piyawattanametha, R. P. J. Barretto, T. H. Ko, B. A. Flusberg, E. D. Cocker, H. Ra, D. Lee, O. Solgaard, and M. J. Schnitzer, “Fast-scanning two-photon fluorescence imaging based on a microelectromechanical systems two-dimensional scanning mirror,” Opt. Lett. 31, 2018–2020 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Proc. IEEE/LEOS International Conference on Optical MEMS and their applications (1)

H. Ra, W. Piyawattanametha, Y. Taguchi, and O. Solgaard, “Dual-axes confocal fluorescence microscopy with a two-dimensional MEMS scanner,” Proc. IEEE/LEOS International Conference on Optical MEMS and their applications, 166–167 (2006).
[Crossref]

Proc. SPIE (1)

J. J. Bernstein, T. W. Lee, F. J. Rogomentich, M. G. Bancu, K. H. Kim, G. Maguluri, B. E. Bouma, and J. F. de Boer, “Scanning OCT endoscope with 2-axis magnetic micromirror,” Proc. SPIE 6432, 64320L (2007).
[Crossref]

Rep. Prog. Phys. (1)

R. H. Webb, “Confocal optical microscopy,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 59, 427–471 (1996).
[Crossref]

Scanning (1)

K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy,” Scanning 13, 369–372 (1991).
[Crossref]

Other (5)

K. D. Carlson, “Fiber optic confocal microscope: in vivo precancer detection”, PhD thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, 2006.

M. R. Harris, “Scanning microscope with a miniature head,” U.K. patent GB 2 340 332 B (2001).

D. Lee and O. Solgaard. “Two-axis gimbaled microscanner in double SOI layers actuated by self-aligned vertical electrostatic combdrive,” in Proceedings of the Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, (2004), pp. 352–355.

A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman & Hall, London, 1983), Chap. 15.

J. B. Pawley, ed. Handbook of confocal microsopy, 2nd edn. (Plenum, New York, 1995).

Supplementary Material (3)

» Media 1: AVI (2519 KB)     
» Media 2: AVI (2519 KB)     
» Media 3: AVI (9605 KB)     

Cited By

OSA participates in Crossref's Cited-By Linking service. Citing articles from OSA journals and other participating publishers are listed here.

Alert me when this article is cited.


Figures (7)

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of the single-fiber confocal microscope system. PBS: polarizing beamsplitter, QWP: quarter-wave plate, APD: avalanche photodiode. (b) Photograph of the miniature objective lens module alongside a US dime. The beam from the MEMS scanner enters at the bottom.

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Optical design of the miniature objective lens. Each lens is 3 mm in diameter, and the total distance between the scanner and sample plane is 39.3 mm.

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Spot diagram (a) and modulation transfer function (b) computed for the three-element miniature objective. The plots shown in (b) correspond to the three field positions indicated in (a), alongside the diffraction-limited case.

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Axial and lateral resolution measurements. (a) Normalized intensity measured as a mirror was translated axially through the focus, FWHM=9.55 µm. (b) Normalized intensity measured as a reflective edge was translated laterally across the focus, 90%-10% transition =0.83 µm.

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Reflectance image of a USAF resolution target, group 7 elements 1-6, acquired with the MEMS confocal microscope. The field-of-view is 140 µm×70 µm and the smallest bars are 2.19 µm wide.

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Confocal reflectance images of ex vivo human oral tissue, (left) acquired with the MEMS confocal microscope and miniature objective. (Movie size 2.5 MB, 3 seconds at 8 fps). (Right) Image of the same tissue slice, acquired with the Lucid Vivascope 2500 confocal microscope. [Media 1]

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. (a) Images of normal in vivo human oral mucosa acquired with the MEMS confocal microscope and miniature objective. (Movie size 2.5 MB, 3 seconds at 8 fps. (9.6 MB version, 15 seconds at 8 fps). (b) Image of the same tissue from the same volunteer, acquired with the Lucid Vivascope 1500 confocal microscope. [Media 2, Media 3]

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Metrics